Summaries of 15 Strategies for Professional Development

Examining Practice

6: Action Research

The emphasis of action research is on practice-based professional inquiry. Its main tenet is that practical problem solving in the classroom is adequate for generating knowledge and that the natural language of teachers is suitable for reporting action research findings. (Duckworth, 1986).

Holly (1991) notes that "... action research as a major form of professional development, is now seen as central to the restructuring of schools" (p. 133). The strength of action research as a professional development strategy is that teachers either define the research questions or contribute to their definition in a meaningful way. Therefore, the teachers are committed to promoting changes indicated by the findings.

The form of the action research can vary. Sometimes teachers work together in inquiry teams or with other researchers, often from universities. Other times, individual teachers pursue their own research studies, with opportunities to discuss findings with fellow teachers or researchers. Still other variations have teachers examine relevant research, which is then used as a basis for collecting and analyzing data from their own classrooms (Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, & Williams, 1987).

Action research assumes that knowledge about teaching and learning should be determined in part by what teachers and students actually do (Miller & Pine, 1990). Direct teacher involvement with research will increase the likelihood that they will use research results. It gives teachers the power to make decisions and puts them in the position of accepting responsibility for their own professional growth (Miller & Pine, 1990; Sparks & Simmons, 1989; Wood, 1988).

The Strategy in Action

This strategy requires that teachers use an action research cycle of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. Teachers identify a subject of research and develop a plan of action, often in collaboration with others. Data are collected by observation, anecdotal records, checklists, videotaping, logging, collecting children's work, interviewing, and surveying, among other techniques. Data are analyzed and used to inform further planning and subsequent action.

As in all research, effective action research projects build on available knowledge, rather than recreating it. Individuals, such as university researchers, offer expertise on the knowledge base and on research methodology to help teachers to ensure the quality of their research (Holly, 1991). In the process of conducting an action research project, teachers gain knowledge and skill in research methods and applications (Lieberman, 1986; Miller & Pine, 1990; Oja & Smulyan, 1989).

Sharing the results of action research can make a significant contribution to professional development. Opportunities to write about a project, to present findings to various audiences, to participate in discussions of the implications, and to develop materials that other teachers can use are just some of the ways that teachers can increase their skills and knowledge beyond what they learn from the action research itself (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1987). Assisting teachers to identify the best vehicles for sharing is an appropriate role for the professional developer.

Issues to Consider

One of the most serious issues facing the action researcher is the significant quantities of time needed to observe how different strategies work with different students and under different circumstances. Teachers deserve to be recognized for the time spent in action research projects and have it count toward district or state professional development or recertification credit. Teachers and administrators can examine the school schedule to find common time for teachers to work together on a research project, during the day, if possible.

Another issue is the lack of recognition for professional development that is not in the form of institutes or workshops. Both administrators and participating teachers can show support by publicly acknowledging the value of action research. Teachers can help convey the importance of their projects by providing regular updates to all staff on their progress.

Finally, not all teachers are ready to serve as action research participants. Teachers differ widely in their priorities and interests and these change over time. Teachers who are struggling to get new practices working may not be ready to collect data, then step back and reflect on them.

References for strategy 6

7: Case Discussions

Cases are narratives in print or on videotape that offer a picture of a teaching or learning event. They are not simply stories about teaching or learning but are, as Shulman (1992) states, focused on a teaching dilemma, student engagement in mathematics investigations, images of student thought processes, or teaching strategies in action. The classroom videotapes in the Resource Kit developed to share the results of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) are powerful examples of videos that be used to evoke deep reflection on instructional practice (U.S. Department of Education, 1997). The process of reflecting on students' thinking and learning through case discussions often results in teachers trying out the ideas or activities contained in the cases in their own classrooms (Barnett, 1991; Davenport & Sassi, 1995; Schifter, 1994). The vivid images of students in the cases prompt teachers to wonder about the thinking of their own students. Case discussions can also be a powerful tool for helping teachers examine their own teaching practices. In these instances, cases typically convey a contextual dilemma, as well as the internal struggles of the case teacher (Schifter, 1996).

Additionally, when teachers confront mathematics issues through the lens of students' perspectives, they often deepen their own content knowledge (Schifter & Bastable, 1995). As teachers reflect on students' approaches, they begin to think through the mathematics again for themselves, often seeing new aspects of familiar content and expanding their own understanding (Russell et al., 1995).

Cases can present complete stories that describe how the case teacher addressed the dilemma (Schifter, 1996). Others end instead with a series of open-ended questions. Some convey the complexity of teaching (Merseth, 1991), while others focus on discrete instances of teaching. Finally, some cases are grouped into clusters based on similar themes. Examining clusters of cases requires teachers to grapple with the theme in different contexts (Barnett & Friedman, in press).

Case discussions provide a more focused picture of a specific aspect of teaching or learning than one could observe in real-time in the classroom. Often, observers in a classroom focus on management and miss opportunities to address specific teaching or learning episodes. By using cases, participants focus on the same situation and have the immediate opportunity to reflect specifically on those experiences during the case discussion. Whatever the focus of a case, all case discussions share common goals: to deepen teachers' fundamental understanding about teaching and learning; to provide opportunities for teachers to become involved in critical discussions of actual teaching situations; and to encourage teachers to become problem-solvers who pose questions and examine alternative solutions (Barnett & Sather, 1992; Shulman & Kepner, 1994).

The Strategy in Action

Case discussions require a knowledgeable facilitator who prompts reflection by case discussants. Facilitators must have a deep understanding of the mathematics content illustrated in the cases. In addition, they must have the skill to turn discussions that are intellectually stimulating, and challenging -- at times even confrontational -- into supportive and ultimately useful dialogs. Handbooks and training opportunities are available to help facilitators develop these skills (see the Reference list at the end of each strategy as well as the Resources section under Technical Assistance).

It is also essential that case discussion groups create an atmosphere of learning and trust. Since participants rely on discussion to tease out insights, they and the facilitator need fairly sophisticated communication skills to challenge assumptions, understand different perspectives, and dig deeply into underlying structures that support mathematics teaching and learning. If participants do not have experience with this type of dialog, they need coaching by the facilitator before beginning their case discussions.

Another key component is the use of relevant and recognizable cases. Although some cases depict situations that reflect the "ideal image" of what teaching and learning can look like, teachers need, at least initially, to be able to identify aspects of their own teaching within a case. Once teachers feel a sense of connection with a case, they can delve deeper into how the situation is related to their own teaching approaches. Some cases will present notions that conflict with the beliefs of the teachers. "Wrestling with the resulting disequilibrium" leads to changes in teachers' thinking (Barnett & Sather, 1992).

Not only is participating in case discussions a powerful professional development strategy, but the process of writing cases also enhances teachers' development. Usually, teacher-writers follow a structured case development process that progresses from identifying an issue of concern to collaborative work with an editor who helps turn the narrative into a case that has benefits for a larger audience. Most teachers who have written cases report that the writing process has a strong impact on their professional lives (Shulman & Kepner, 1994).

Issues to Consider

One question currently being asked is whether case discussions must be conducted face-to-face, or whether they can be done electronically. Bank Street College conducts successful electronic case discussions as part of their telecomputing courses. (This program is discussed in detail in Strategy 14, Technology for Professional Learning.) On the other hand, there is good reason to argue that, because they often challenge teachers' deeply-held beliefs, case discussions are best conducted in person. The face-to-face dimension can be critical in establishing rapport and communicating disagreements in constructive ways. Preserving these benefits via electronic means presents a considerable challenge.

Another issue is whether being part of a discussion group is essential for this strategy. Although teachers can certainly learn many things from reading cases on their own, many of the real benefits derive from the group process itself. It is difficult, if not impossible, to throw oneself into the kind of disequilibrium Barnett and Friedman (in press) have shown to be the essential first step to changing beliefs and practices. In addition, the diverse contributions of the group are what determine the unique nature of each case discussion.

The question of whether unfacilitated discussions are as effective as those that are facilitated is another critical issue. The role of the facilitator in many case approaches is more than that of a guide. Particularly in those instances where the approach includes published case facilitation guides or notes, the facilitator can be responsible for encouraging the group to address certain issues raised in the guides. Without a facilitator, some of these issues might be left unexamined.

Finally, people who use case discussions, and especially those who write their own cases, need to be concerned about the confidentiality and ethics involved in this strategy. Case discussions need to be treated like cases in other professions, such as health, law, and social services. Participants must ensure that materials such as videotape, print descriptions, and pictures are used with consent and that all material viewed are kept confidential by the group (Kleinfeld, undated).

References for strategy 7

8: Examining Student Work and Thinking, and Scoring Assessments

"Real student work gives teachers a starting point for conversations that get to the essence of what happens in classrooms. Samples of student work are concrete demonstrations of what is known and what is not known" (Evans, 1993, p. 72). Using the professional development strategy of examining student work and thinking, and scoring assessments is based on several assumptions about teaching, learning, and professional development.

The closer a professional development opportunity brings teachers to student learning, the better. This philosophy is in contrast with professional development that focuses on teaching practices. Examining student work focuses teachers' attention on the consequences of their teaching and demonstrates discrepancies between what teachers believed they were teaching and what students appear to have learned (Driscoll & Bryant, in press).

It stands to reason that more learning occurs when teachers confront real problems. Such is the case with student work and assessments, which teachers use to judge the quality of learning and, in some cases, teaching. As Ball and Cohen (1995) indicate, there is value in using a real task of practice as a context for learning.

There are many who see this strategy as the most powerful way to help teachers improve their practice. Clearly, it is totally "authentic" in that teachers work with products of student thinking and study closely the very thing they are responsible for improving. As professional development becomes more results oriented, there is no better way to focus on learning.

The Strategy in Action

The availability of student work may make this appear to be an easily applied strategy for professional development. However, professional developers need to keep in mind that student work samples should be varied in their nature and quality. Rather than consisting of short answers, the samples must include students' explanations of their thinking (e.g., why they answered the way they did).

The focus of teachers' discussion of student work may vary. Sometimes disappointing student performance on a standardized test will give teachers a compelling reason to examine the actual examination questions and their students' answers. At other times, teachers might discuss examples of student classroom work that puzzle them. In some situations, teachers may begin with a rubric supplied by others to apply to a set of student work or may take the opportunity to develop their own rubric through examining student answers. Or, the focus for a discussion may be a videotape of children's explanations of their understanding of a problem or situation.

Although individual teachers can certainly examine student work on their own, there is power in discussing the work as a team. As elementary teacher Christine Evans (1993) points out, working together greatly enhances the process. Across her teaching group, ideas differed about the mathematics, the tasks, and particular students. Together they began to develop shared standards that could guide their collective efforts. Creating a supportive environment allows teachers to work with each other and examine their own values notes Rebecca Corwin (1997, p. 187), "...doing mathematics together in a responsive group creates a safe professional community in which to explore issues and raise questions about both mathematics and pedagogy."

The guidance of an expert with deep mathematics content knowledge is especially important in this strategy. Often, understanding what students are thinking by analyzing their written work requires substantial knowledge of the mathematics topic. Similarly, if students' responses on standardized tests or the effectiveness of the tests themselves are being examined, it is helpful to have the guidance of someone with experience in assessment.

Issues to Consider

It is useful to think about how this strategy can be combined with others to optimize professional learning. For example, teachers implementing a new curriculum can bring examples of student work to follow-up sessions. Case discussions can (and often do) relate to student work, with teachers analyzing in some depth what students did and what teachers can learn from that. Action research and peer coaching can pay special attention to observations of students talking to each other, or working on problems or investigations and questioning them about what they are doing and why. Video cases of teaching, including CD-ROMs, can be accompanied by student work, so viewers can get a deeper understanding of what students are learning.

The most important aspect of this strategy is that teachers develop for themselves the ability to understand the content students are struggling with, and ways that they, the teachers, can help. Pedagogical content knowledge, that special province of excellent teachers, is absolutely necessary for teachers to maximize their learning as they analyze student work.

References for strategy 8

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